Mod 1: Agriculture in the Economy, Land Use and Crop Seasons
4A.1.1 Why agriculture matters — income, jobs, food and taxes
🏫 School → 🇮🇳 UPSC · NCERT-linked · latest official data
- School
- Class 10+2
- BPSC
- UPSC
- State agriculture’s share in India’s GVA and workforce with the latest figures.
- Explain the four roles of agriculture: income, employment, industry/trade and food.
- Explain why the share of income is far lower than the share of jobs (disguised unemployment).
- Say who can tax agricultural income and under which constitutional entry.
- Name what strengthens — and what does not strengthen — the rural economy.
Almost half of India’s workers are in farming, but farming produces less than one-fifth of the value the economy adds. If you were a planner, what would this tell you?
Show answer
Each farm worker produces much less value than a worker in industry or services. Too many people share the same land — so productivity per worker is low and some of the labour is surplus (disguised unemployment). The long-run answer is to raise farm productivity and move some workers into non-farm jobs.
Count these on four fingers — UPSC and UPPCS have both asked “the importance of agriculture is shown by its contribution to…”.
📌 Solves: Q90 (all four roles) · Q93, Q95 (share of labour force)
CheckQuick check: Which source gives 58.2% and which gives about 55% for workers in agriculture?
Census 2001 = 58.2%; Census 2011 ≈ 55%. The latest survey figure (PLFS 2023-24) is 46.1%.
Look at the two rings. The orange ring is people, the teal ring is income. Same sector, very different sizes.
When nearly half the workforce produces under a fifth of output, output per worker in farming is roughly a quarter of that in the rest of the economy. NCERT Class 9 shows this in Palampur: many family members “work” on a small plot, but removing some of them would not reduce output — that is disguised unemployment.
CheckQuick check: Give the term for workers whose removal does not reduce farm output.
Disguised unemployment (marginal productivity close to zero).
Exams love “match the indicator”. Learn the then-figure and the now-figure together.
| Indicator | 2006-07 (question period) | Latest |
|---|---|---|
| Per-capita GDP, current prices | ≈ ₹37,000 | ₹2,43,180 (2025-26, 2nd AE) |
| Per-capita GDP, constant 2022-23 prices | — | ₹2,27,065 |
| Per-capita income (NNI), current | — | ₹2,07,598 |
| Rice production | ≈ 93 MT | 150.18 MT (2024-25 final) · 154.02 MT (2025-26 3rd AE) |
| Wheat production | ≈ 75.8 MT | 117.95 MT (2024-25 final) · 120.66 MT (2025-26 3rd AE) |
Source: NSO second advance estimates (27 Feb 2026); Ministry of Agriculture final estimates 2024-25 and third advance estimates 2025-26.
📌 Solves: Q91
A favourite one-liner. The answer sits in the Seventh Schedule.
- A Kerala rubber planter’s income can be taxed only under the Kerala Agricultural Income Tax Act — not by the Union.
- A salaried person with ₹50,000 farm income pays no Union tax on that part, but it is added for “rate purposes” (partial integration).
📌 Solves: Q92
CheckQuick check: Which entry of which list covers taxes on agricultural income?
Entry 46 of List II (State List).
Two state-level facts and one logic question to finish.
- Census 2011: in Uttar Pradesh 59.3% of workers were in agriculture — the largest group, ahead of industry and services.
- What builds the rural economy: pastoralism (animal husbandry), cottage industries, access to good tools. What adds little: private money-lending — it moves money around at high interest but creates no new output.
Is a falling share of agriculture in GVA a sign that farming is failing?
Show answer
No. As economies grow, industry and services grow faster, so agriculture’s share falls even while its output rises (foodgrains more than 7× since 1950-51). The real worry is that the share of workers has fallen much more slowly than the share of income.
📌 Solves: Q94, Q234
Different measures. 18% is the share of GVA (NSO, provisional, 2025-26). 15.2% is the share of nominal GDP quoted in the Economic Survey 2025-26. GDP includes product taxes, so the share is smaller.
In national accounts it is “agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing”. Livestock alone now adds more value than many crop groups.
1 markName any two roles of agriculture in the Indian economy.
Any two: income (GVA), employment, raw material/exports, food supply.
3 marksExplain disguised unemployment with an example from agriculture.
More people work on a plot than needed; if some leave, output stays the same. Example: five family members on a 1-hectare plot that three could manage — the marginal product of the extra two is near zero.
PYQ patternAgricultural income tax in India can be levied by: (a) Centre (b) States (c) Local bodies (d) Both Centre and States
(b) States — Entry 46, List II.
MainsWhy has the share of agriculture in employment fallen more slowly than its share in GVA? Suggest two remedies. (150 words)
Model answer
Agriculture’s share of GVA has fallen to about 18% because industry and services grew faster. Its share of workers fell more slowly — about 55% in 2011 and 46.1% in 2023-24 — because non-farm jobs for low-skilled rural workers did not grow fast enough, land is held in tiny plots, and family farms absorb surplus labour (disguised unemployment).
Remedies: (1) labour-intensive manufacturing and rural non-farm jobs (food processing, MSMEs); (2) raising farm productivity through irrigation, seeds, mechanisation and market access, so that the workers who remain earn more.
Q95 · Q93 · Q90 · Q91 · Q92 · Q94 · Q234
Arranged in chronological order of exam year in the Questions panel →
- Draw the two rings (workers vs GVA) in your notebook with the latest numbers.
- Ask a farming family how many members work on their land and whether all are needed in every season.
- I can state agriculture’s share in GVA and in jobs.
- I can list four roles of agriculture.
- I can explain disguised unemployment.
- I know who taxes agricultural income.
- Agri & allied ≈ 18% of GVA (2025-26 PE).
- Workers: 58.2% (2001) → ≈55% (2011) → 46.1% (PLFS 2023-24).
- Foodgrains 50.8 MT (1950-51) → 376.56 MT (2025-26, 3rd AE).
- Agri income tax = State subject, Entry 46 List II; Sec 10(1) IT Act exemption.
- UP: 59.3% workers in agriculture (Census 2011).
- NSO (MoSPI) provisional estimates of GDP 2025-26, 5 June 2026; second advance estimates, 27 Feb 2026.
- Ministry of Agriculture & FW — final estimates 2024-25, third advance estimates 2025-26 (27 May 2026).
- PLFS Annual Report 2023-24; Census 2001 & 2011.
- NCERT Class 9 Economics Ch 1; Class 11 Indian Economic Development.
- Agriculture & allied ≈ 18% of GVA (2025-26 provisional, current prices); 15.2% of nominal GDP per Economic Survey 2025-26.
- Workforce share: Census 2001 58.2%, Census 2011 ≈ 55%, PLFS 2023-24 46.1%.
- Taxing agricultural income: only States, Entry 46 List II; exempt from Union tax under Section 10(1).
- UP: 59.3% workers in agriculture (Census 2011).
- Question: Who can levy tax on agricultural income? Answer: State Governments (Entry 46, List II).
- Question: Share of workers in agriculture as per PLFS 2023-24? Answer: 46.1%.
- Question: Foodgrain production in 2025-26 (3rd AE)? Answer: 376.56 million tonnes (record).
MCQs — previous-year questions in exam-year order
Answer this question, then use Next.
PYQ · Q95 · M.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1997
What approximate percentage of India's labour force at present depends on agriculture for their livelihood?
The book marks this (*): in 1997 about 65% was the accepted figure, so (b). Census 2011 ≈ 55%; PLFS 2023-24 = 46.1% (closest option today: 50%). Then (b) 65%. Census 2011 ~55%; ~46.1% now.
PYQ · Q93 · 45th B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2001
What percentage of labour force is provided direct employment by the agriculture sector in India?
The book marks this (*): no option is exact. Census 2001 gave 58.2%, so the closest option was (d) 65%. Census 2011 ≈ 55%; PLFS 2023-24 = 46.1%. Census 2001 58.2%; Census 2011 ~55%. PLFS 2023-24 46.1%.
PYQ · Q90 · U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007
The importance of agriculture in Indian economy is indicated by its contribution to which of the following?
17.88% of GVA (2nd AE 2025-26, current); ~half employment (Census 2011 55%); 12% of exports 2024-25; foodgrains 50.8 MT (1950-51) to 357.73 (2024-25), 376.56 (3rd AE 2025-26).
PYQ · Q91 · I.A.S. (Pre) 2008
Which of the following pairs about India's economic indicator and agricultural production (all in rounded figures) are correctly matched? 1. GDP per capita (current prices): Rs. 37,000 2. Rice: 180 million tonnes 3. Wheat: 75 million tonnes
The book marks this (*): for 2006-07, per-capita GDP ≈ ₹37,000 and wheat ≈ 75.8 MT were right, rice was ≈ 93 MT (not 180 MT), so (d) 1 and 3 only fitted the question period. 2006-07: per capita GDP ~Rs 37,000, wheat 75.8 MT, rice 93 MT -> (d) then. 2nd AE (27 Feb 2026) 2025-26: per capita GDP current Rs 243180, constant (2022-23) 227065; PCI current 207598, constant 193152. Wheat 117.95 & rice 150.18 MT in 2024-25 (vs 113.29, 137.83 in 2023-24); 2025-26 3rd AE wheat 120.66, rice 154.02.
PYQ · Q92 · U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009
Agriculture income tax in India can be levied by:
Entry 46 State List; exempt under Sec 10(1) Income Tax Act.
PYQ · Q94 · U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012
In Uttar Pradesh maximum percentage of workers are engaged in:
Census 2011: 59.3% in agriculture.
PYQ · Q234 · U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2013
Which One of the followings does not contribute to the rural economy?
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Who can levy tax on agricultural income?
State Governments (Entry 46, List II).Share of workers in agriculture as per PLFS 2023-24?
46.1%.Foodgrain production in 2025-26 (3rd AE)?
376.56 million tonnes (record).4A.1.2 Land use, net sown area, cropping intensity and agro-climatic regions
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- School
- Class 10+2
- BPSC
- UPSC
- Define net sown area, gross cropped area and cropping intensity.
- Quote India’s latest land-use numbers (2023-24).
- Calculate cropping intensity yourself.
- Recall the regional schemes: Sengupta–Sdasyuk (4–11–60) and the Planning Commission’s 15 agro-climatic zones.
A farmer grows paddy in kharif and wheat in rabi on the same 1 hectare. How much area is “net sown” and how much is “gross cropped”?
Show answer
Net sown area counts the land once = 1 ha. Gross cropped area counts it every time it is sown = 2 ha. Cropping intensity = 2 ÷ 1 × 100 = 200%.
These three words appear in nearly every land-use question.
| Term | Meaning | India 2023-24 (P) |
|---|---|---|
| Net sown area (NSA) | Area sown with crops and orchards; land sown more than once is counted once | 138.99 Mha (42.28% of geographical area) |
| Gross cropped area (GCA) | Area counted as many times as it is sown in a year | ≈ 218 Mha (NSA × 1.568) |
| Cropping intensity | GCA ÷ NSA × 100 | 156.8% |
| Net irrigated area | Land irrigated at least once | 82.42 Mha |
| Gross irrigated area | Irrigated area counted per crop | 130.55 Mha |
Source: Land Use Statistics at a Glance 2023-24 (released July 2025). Reporting/geographical area basis: 328.755 Mha.
Cropping intensity = GCA ÷ NSA × 100. Change the numbers to see how double-cropping raises it.
📌 Solves: Q49 (NSA ≈ 14 crore ha)
CheckQuick check: Convert 138.99 million hectares into crore hectares.
1 crore = 10 million, so 138.99 Mha ≈ 13.9 crore ha ≈ 14 crore ha.
Out of every 100 hectares of India’s reporting area, about 42 are sown. Let us see the irrigation side too.
📌 Solves: Q50 (then ≈135% → option b; today ≈157%, nearest option c)
Different scholars, different layers. Remember the numbers as a staircase: 4, 11, 60.
| Tier | Basis | Number of regions |
|---|---|---|
| Macro | Climatic conditions | 4 |
| Meso | Physiography | 11 |
| Micro | Crop combinations | 60 |
| Who | Year | Zones | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|
| Planning Commission (soil, temperature, rainfall, agro-meteorology) | 1988 | 15 agro-climatic zones | 8th Five Year Plan (1992-97) |
| Uttar Pradesh | — | 9 agro-climatic zones | State planning |
4 → 11 → 60 · 15 · 9
Sengupta–Sdasyuk macro–meso–micro; Planning Commission 15; UP 9.
📌 Solves: Q103, Q104, Q169 (statement 2: UP has 9 zones)
CheckQuick check: How many micro-regions did Sengupta and Sdasyuk identify, and on what basis?
60, on the basis of crop combinations.
UPPCS 2010 mixed four facts. Test each one separately.
| Statement | True? | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Crop insurance started in 1985 | ✔ | Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme, 1 April 1985 |
| UP has 9 agro-climatic zones | ✔ | State zoning |
| Food for Work Programme started 1977 | ✔ | Launched 1977-78 |
| Blue revolution = mustard | ✘ | Blue = fish; yellow = oilseeds such as mustard |
India cannot add much new land, so growth must come from using the same land more often. Higher cropping intensity = more harvests from the same field.
Irrigated states such as Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal and parts of Bihar and UP grow two or three crops a year.
1 markDefine net sown area.
Area sown with crops and orchards in a year, counting land sown more than once only once.
NumericalNSA = 140 Mha, GCA = 210 Mha. Find cropping intensity.
210 ÷ 140 × 100 = 150%.
MatchingMatch: A. 4 B. 11 C. 60 D. 15 — 1. Agro-climatic zones (Planning Commission) 2. Micro-regions 3. Macro-regions 4. Meso-regions
A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1.
PrelimsWith reference to 2023-24 land use: 1. NSA is above 40% of geographical area. 2. Net irrigated area is above 60% of NSA. Which is/are correct?
1 only. 42.28% ✔; 82.42 ÷ 138.99 = 59.3% ✘.
Q104 · Q169 · Q49 · Q50 · Q103
Arranged in chronological order of exam year in the Questions panel →
- Use the calculator: what cropping intensity would India reach if GCA rose by 10 Mha?
- Find your district’s agro-climatic zone.
- I can define NSA, GCA and cropping intensity.
- I can calculate cropping intensity.
- I remember 4–11–60 and 15.
- NSA 138.99 Mha (42.28%) in 2023-24.
- Cropping intensity 156.8% (135.79% in 2009-10).
- Net irrigated 82.42 Mha; gross irrigated 130.55 Mha.
- Sengupta–Sdasyuk: 4 macro, 11 meso, 60 micro.
- Planning Commission: 15 agro-climatic zones (1988), 8th Plan; UP: 9.
- Land Use Statistics at a Glance 2023-24 (DES, MoA&FW, July 2025).
- Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2015.
- NCERT Class 10 Geography Ch 1.
- NSA 2023-24 (P): 138.99 Mha = 42.28% of 328.755 Mha.
- Cropping intensity = GCA/NSA × 100 = 156.8% (2023-24).
- Sengupta & Sdasyuk (1968): 4 macro, 11 meso, 60 micro regions.
- Planning Commission: 15 agro-climatic zones (1988) for 8th Plan.
- Question: Cropping intensity of India in 2023-24? Answer: 156.8%.
- Question: How many agro-climatic zones did the Planning Commission mark? Answer: 15.
- Question: Net irrigated area 2023-24? Answer: 82.42 million hectares.
MCQs — previous-year questions in exam-year order
Answer this question, then use Next.
PYQ · Q104 · R.A.S./R.T.S. (Pre) 1999
For the 8th Plan, India was divided into how many agro-climatic zones by the Planning Commission?
15 agro-climatic zones (1988), used for 8th Plan.
PYQ · Q169 · U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010
Consider the following statements: 1. The Crop Insurance Scheme in India was started in the year 1985. 2. The total number of agro-climatic zones in U.P. is 9. 3. Food for Work Programme was started in the year 1977. 4. Blue revolution is concerned with production of mustard.
Blue = fish.
PYQ · Q49 · U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2016
The net crop sown area in India is about:
2012-13 NSA 139.9 Mha. Land Use Statistics at a Glance 2023-24 (July 2025): geog area 328.755 Mha; NSA 138.99 Mha (42.28%); cropping intensity 156.8%; net irrigated 82.42 Mha; gross irrigated 130.55 Mha.
PYQ · Q50 · U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2017
The average cropping intensity of India is about:
The book marks this (*): with 2009-10 data (135.79%) the answer was (b). Today cropping intensity is 156.8% (2023-24), so the nearest option would be (c) 160%. 2009-10: 135.79% (then b). 2023-24 (P): 156.8% (now nearest c).
PYQ · Q103 · U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2017
P. Sengupta and G. Sdasyuk (1968) had divided India into how many micro agricultural regions?
Three-tier: climate 4 macro; physiography 11 meso; crop combinations 60 micro.
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Cropping intensity of India in 2023-24?
156.8%.How many agro-climatic zones did the Planning Commission mark?
15.Net irrigated area 2023-24?
82.42 million hectares.4A.1.3 Crop seasons, cash crops, the wheat calendar and farm costs
🏫 School → 🇮🇳 UPSC · NCERT-linked · latest official data
- School
- Class 10+2
- BPSC
- UPSC
- Place crops in kharif, rabi and zaid.
- Separate cash crops from foodgrains and vegetables.
- Name the critical irrigation stages of wheat.
- Tell running (working) costs from fixed charges.
A farmer sells all his cotton and keeps half his rice for the family. Which is the cash crop?
Show answer
Cotton — grown mainly to be sold (often as industrial raw material). Rice here is a food crop grown partly for home use.
NCERT Class 10 gives three seasons. Sowing month decides the season.
| Season | Sown | Harvested | Typical crops |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kharif (monsoon) | June–July | Sept–Oct | Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soybean, niger |
| Rabi (winter) | Oct–Dec | Apr–June | Wheat, barley, gram, peas, mustard, masur (lentil), safflower |
| Zaid (summer) | Mar–Apr | June | Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, fodder |
📌 Solves: Q231
CheckQuick check: Is gram a kharif or rabi crop?
Rabi.
A cash crop is grown to be sold — usually as raw material for industry or for export — not for the family’s own plate.
| Crop | Category | Cash crop? |
|---|---|---|
| Sugarcane | Raw material for sugar, jaggery, ethanol | ✔ |
| Cotton | Fibre for textiles | ✔ |
| Jute | Fibre | ✔ |
| Tobacco | Commercial | ✔ |
| Rubber | Plantation | ✔ |
| Rapeseed–mustard | Oilseed crushed for oil and oilcake | ✔ |
| Groundnut | Oilseed, mostly marketed | ✔ (in exam keys) |
| Paddy / rice | Foodgrain | ✘ |
| Jowar | Coarse foodgrain | ✘ |
| Potato | Vegetable (horticulture) | ✘ |
| Soyabean | Oilseed/pulse-like food crop | ✘ in UPPCS 2012 key |
Potato?
Jowar?
Rapeseed?
Rubber?
📌 Solves: Q96, Q97, Q230
CheckQuick check: Pick the non-cash crop: jute, groundnut, jowar, sugarcane.
Jowar.
Wheat has six critical irrigation stages. If you can water only once, choose the first.
- Canal water in Bihar and eastern UP is often short in December — extension workers advise farmers to give the first irrigation at CRI, about three weeks after sowing.
📌 Solves: Q48
Economists split farm costs into working (running) capital and fixed charges.
| Item | Type | In running cost? |
|---|---|---|
| Seed | Input used up in one season | ✔ |
| Fertiliser | Input | ✔ |
| Irrigation water charges | Input | ✔ |
| Hired labour, diesel | Input | ✔ |
| Land revenue | Tax on land (fixed charge) | ✘ |
📌 Solves: Q233
Mostly kharif, but rabi maize is growing fast in Bihar.
Keys follow the traditional list (tobacco, cotton, rubber, jute, sugarcane). Soyabean is treated as a food/oilseed crop. Read the options carefully.
1 markName two rabi crops.
Wheat, gram (also barley, mustard, masur).
2 marksWhy is CRI the most critical stage for wheat irrigation?
Crown roots form then; moisture stress reduces tillers and so yield.
PYQ patternWhich is not a cash crop? (a) Jute (b) Groundnut (c) Jowar (d) Sugarcane
(c) Jowar.
PrelimsConsider: 1. Potato 2. Rice 3. Sugarcane 4. Cotton 5. Rapeseed. Which are cash crops?
3, 4 and 5.
Q48 · Q230 · Q233 · Q97 · Q96 · Q231
Arranged in chronological order of exam year in the Questions panel →
- List five crops grown in your area and mark them kharif/rabi/zaid and cash/food.
- I can place crops in seasons.
- I can identify cash crops.
- I know wheat’s CRI stage.
- I know land revenue is not a running cost.
- Kharif: sown June–July; rabi: Oct–Dec; zaid: Mar–Apr.
- Cash crops: sugarcane, cotton, jute, tobacco, rubber, rapeseed.
- Jowar, paddy, potato: not cash crops.
- Wheat: CRI (20–25 DAS) most critical.
- Land revenue ≠ running cost.
- NCERT Class 10 Geography Ch 4.
- ICAR — wheat crop production guides.
- Kharif: rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, groundnut; Rabi: wheat, barley, gram, mustard; Zaid: watermelon, cucumber.
- Cash crops: sugarcane, cotton, jute, tobacco, rubber, rapeseed-mustard.
- Most critical wheat irrigation: crown root initiation (20–25 days).
- Running cost capital: seed, fertiliser, irrigation, labour — not land revenue.
- Question: Most critical stage for irrigation in wheat? Answer: Crown root initiation (CRI).
- Question: Is jowar a cash crop? Answer: No, it is a coarse foodgrain.
- Question: Sowing time of rabi crops? Answer: October to December.
MCQs — previous-year questions in exam-year order
Answer this question, then use Next.
PYQ · Q48 · U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005
The most critical stage for irrigation in wheat is:
CRI (crown root initiation, ~20-25 days after sowing) most critical; other critical: tillering, jointing, booting, flowering, milk, dough.
PYQ · Q230 · U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012
Which one among the followings is not a cash crop?
PYQ · Q233 · U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2014
Which of the followings is not included in running cost capital of a farm?
PYQ · Q97 · 60th-62nd B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2016
Which of the followings is not a cash crop?
Jowar = coarse foodgrain.
PYQ · Q96 · U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) (Re-Exam) 2023
Which of the following belongs to cash crops? I. Potato II. Rice III. Sugarcane IV. Cotton V. Rapeseed
Potato = vegetable/horticulture; paddy = foodgrain; sugarcane, cotton, rapeseed-mustard = cash crops.
PYQ · Q231 · 71st B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2025
Which of the following is a Kharif crop?
Barley, gram, wheat rabi; sugarcane long-duration linked with kharif.
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Most critical stage for irrigation in wheat?
Crown root initiation (CRI).Is jowar a cash crop?
No, it is a coarse foodgrain.Sowing time of rabi crops?
October to December.